One draws a distinction between subjective and objective metaphysics. Objective metaphysics seek for the unity in all information. There are various schools of objective metaphysics: the realistic and the scholastic school, and physical, natural and material metaphysics.
Subjective metaphysics seek for the unity in the subject all information is meant for. When one assumes that the unity of the world was realized only by the creating ability of the human spirit, we speak of idealistic metaphysics.
Classical Metaphysics
Before Plato there was a world of timeless, unchangeable ideas, archetypes of unchangeable forms. Sensory perceptions were a perfect reflection of the world of ideas. The world man experienced through his senses was according to Plato not the real, eternal world. According to him only pure ideas could provide certainty: they'd exist by themselves and would be withdrawn from the instability and changeability of the world. Aristotle disagreed with Plato and honored the principle of change. His metaphysical discovery was the evolution of all things towards an objective. Aristotle stated that everything strives for perfection: fundamentally everything is dust and matter. It is lead to perfection by the `form': the power that transforms matter to reality. Whenever something reaches its form then it has realized itself, it has become what it was meant to be. The highest of all forms would be godhead. Aristotle regarded that as a form without matter.
Middle Ages
Theologian Thomas Aquinas wanted to justify Christian faith by backing up theology by Aristotelian metaphysics. He occupied himself with the difference between faith and sense. Thomas stated that man should trust his senses. Sense would know that every material thing strives for purity and perfection. But only faith could have a full understanding of God, and faith would acknowledge God as the creator of the world.
Cusanus can be considered the metaphysician who formed the connection between the Middle Ages and the New Age. He was the first one to regard the eternity of the world as object of discussion. This way he wanted to solve the problem of the relation between God and the world in a new way. He stated that all contradictions in God being infinite fell together. According to Cusanus one had to accept the world and to reject dualism, the separation of two worlds. Only then one would be able to discover the infinity inside finite beings. The world would be a finite infinity, with a created God.
Later Ages
Descartes went along the lines of Cusanus. He sought to infinity by the assumption of methodic doubt. For him it was important to discover something that was so certain, that all doubts would be excluded. Doubting everything would lead to one certainty: he who doubts everything, truly exists. By doubting he thinks, and is therefore certain he exists. And more: who doubts knows by the questions he asks already something from the infinite. What exists for the finite mind is merely a curtailment of the full truth, which is infinite. The awareness of infinity came according to Descartes before the awareness of finiteness, just like the awareness of God came before the awareness of self-existence.
Kant investigated in the borders of metaphysics and the possibilities of the human mind. He questioned whether the human mind was capable of thinking true things. Metaphysics would seem to assume that the existence of a world was apart from the existence of mankind, and he stated that that was impossible. The world behaves according to the rules of mankind. Mankind accepts certain things, but adds its own merits, too. With inherent yet subconscious mental power mankind could form relations between things, like cause and consequence and similarities between events in the past. Kant was the first person who put that not the outside world, but the human mind was the basis of the metaphysical way of thinking.
Twentieth Century
The main form of philosophy in the nineteenth and twentieth century was the idealistic form of metaphysics. Especially Kant's theories were popular, and were tested and analyzed in a great share of studies. At the moment the works of Heidegger draw much attention. The most trends in science, particularly logical positivism, investigate in traditional metaphysics even more than Kant did. Russell was of the opinion that metaphysics were the result of imprecise use of colloquial language, a vision that had great impact on logical-positivists. Wittgenstein agrees with Russell and adds that metaphysics can't solve the problems around the concept of truth. Metaphysics are nothing more than juggling with words, according to Wittgenstein. metaphysicians would take words out of their contexts and add entirely new meanings to the words. Language would never be able to judge over reality.
Metaphysics (Ontology) is basically the study of the possible assumptions one can make when faced with reality. The three most commonly seen metaphysics being different forms of Materialism, Dualism, and Idealism. Some other notable metaphysics are Vitalism, Naturalism, Historicism, Objectivism, Subjective Relativism, and Personalism.
For the purpose of convenience I will explain in brief detail the differences between these metaphysics. The basis of all metaphysics is to describe what is real and more importantly what is most real. before I get to it; for those of you who ask why this is important (Philosophy bakes no bread) these metaphysics are the basis of religions ways of dealing with life, which some people will kill for.
First the most simple which is the basis of modern science: Materialism. Materialism, in metaphysics, is characterized by defining matter (stuff) as most real. For hard materialists this means that the only things that are real are those things which you can touch. When one goes to look at consciousness from this perspective, it can only be a result of matter and chemicals. Hard materialists don't believe in things like heaven or God. The most notable materialist is Karl Marx who also resembles a historicist, more on that later. Also from the actual texts we have Gautama Siddhartha (The Buddha) appears to be materialist.
Second we cover the opposite end of the spectrum Idealism. Idealism, in metaphysics, is characterized by defining soul/consciousness/form (non-stuff) as most real. Most idealists are soft idealists believing that matter exists, but that it for the soul purpose of creating ideas, or that it is an illusion created by non-stuff. Their are several notable idealists Hegel, Hindus, Berkeley, and others. Berkeley goes beyond most idealists by basically denying the existence of stuff. As I recall Kant is in this same line of thinking. Hegel develops the concept of Historicism (which can also assume one of the other two basic metaphysics) declaring that Guist (or world spirit) is behind everything. The Hindus believe in Brahman, a consciousness that is everything and is behind everything in the material world.
Third is the last of the most basic metaphysics, and perhaps the most commonly believed: Dualism. Dualism is the belief that there is both matter (stuff) and spirit (non-stuff). They have one major problem in interaction (if there is both stuff and non-stuff how/why do they effect each other). This view is that of the Hebrew Religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) but perhaps more accurately a Dualism based on Personalism. Notable dualists include St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, Descartes (although some might place him with the idealists), Soren Kierkegaard, Martin Hiedegger (also a Personalist.), Plato, Aristotle, and the list goes on and on. This view includes things like God, man, Heaven, Earth, mind/soul, body, form, and object (this list was ordered by the non-stuff and opposing stuff).
As for the others here is what they elevate above all else, and their primary influence(s):
That ends this short lesson in the metaphysics, I hope that you can take something from it.
Met`a*phys"ics (?), n. [Gr. after those things which relate to external nature, after physics, fr. beyond, after + relating to external nature, natural, physical, fr. nature: cf. F. m'etaphysique. See Physics. The term was first used by the followers of Aristotle as a name for that part of his writings which came after, or followed, the part which treated of physics.]
1.
The science of real as distinguished from phenomenal being; ontology; also, the science of being, with reference to its abstract and universal conditions, as distinguished from the science of determined or concrete being; the science of the conceptions and relations which are necessarily implied as true of every kind of being; phylosophy in general; first principles, or the science of first principles.
Metaphysics is distinguished as general and special. General metaphysics is the science of all being as being. Special metaphysics is the science of one kind of being; as, the metaphysics of chemistry, of morals, or of politics. According to Kant, a systematic exposition of those notions and truths, the knowledge of which is altogether independent of experience, would constitute the science of metaphysics.
Commonly, in the schools, called metaphysics, as being part of the philosophy of Aristotle, which hath that for title; but it is in another sense: for there it signifieth as much as "books written or placed after his natural philosophy." But the schools take them for "books of supernatural philosophy;" for the word metaphysic will bear both these senses. Hobbes.
Now the science conversant about all such inferences of unknown being from its known manifestations, is called ontology, or metaphysics proper. Sir W. Hamilton.
Metaphysics are [is] the science which determines what can and what can not be known of being, and the laws of being, a priori. Coleridge.
2.
Hence: The scientific knowledge of mental phenomena; mental philosophy; psychology.
Metaphysics, in whatever latitude the term be taken, is a science or complement of sciences exclusively occupied with mind. Sir W. Hamilton.
Whether, after all, A larger metaphysics might not help Our physics. Mrs. Browning.
© Webster 1913.
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