The State of New Zealand Between 1880 and 1910

Introduction:

Between the years of 1880 and 1907, New Zealand changed in many ways, becoming a proud socialist leader and member of the Empire as a Dominion State. Progress was evident in New Zealand Society, and a sense of nationhood emerged. New Zealand became a socialist utopia, after tough times, and has remained a fore-runner in socialist issues ever since.

The Structure of New Zealand:

Land:

New Zealand settlers often owned land - 52% of settlers did own land in 1891, and this number increased rapidly in the 1890s with the Advances to Settlers Act. This act of parliament saw land leased out to workers on a cheap hirepurchase agreement. In 1905, this same principal was extended to housing, as the Liberal government began plans to upgrade the standard of New Zealand housing.
The different colonies varied in prosperity. In older established colonies, particularly in the South Island, farms were prosperous by the late nineteenth century, and the communities of these areas were well developed - high wages, churches and halls established, social services and a near-equal proportion of men to women. In the newer 'frontier' colonies of the North Island, the population consisted mainly of men. Settlers fought against the bush, each other and the local iwi, and social services were almost non-existent. The settlers were isolated.
In the early 1880s, New Zealand largely consisted of expansive stations devoted to the farming of sheep. These wealthy landowners, the 'Southern Gentry' dominated New Zealand life, from house size, to wealth, to politics. The big landowners, in 1890, were only 1% of the South Island population that owned land, but held title to 78% of the arable land! The economic depression (below) in New Zealand saw the breaking up of large estates (more than 5000 acres) into many smaller farms. Another large source of land was the occupation of North Island land.

Population:

In the early 1880s, the colonists numbered 500 000. By 1900, however, the population of New Zealand was 750 000. This relatively small increase was due to the recession and the following 'Exodus' of settlers (i.e. more emigrated than immigrated, referring to the years between 1886 and 1891), which caused a population drop before normal rates of immigration were resumed. Marriage rates during this period also dropped considerably. The Advances to Settlers Act brought about by the Liberal government changed the Exodus to an influx of settlers, brought by the promise of cheap loans. By the end of the century, the proportion of women to men was equalising. Originally, single men had immigrated to take their chances on making a fortune in the new colony, but by 1896, for every 100 men there were 89.31 females. This only applied to European colonists however... in minority groups such as the Chinese who had immigrated during the gold rushes, the same year saw a major imbalance in that there were 3859 men and only 86 women. The population was beginning to balance out - the original colonists were becoming older, there were middle aged colonists/New Zealanders and young New Zealanders.

Places of Habitation:

In 1881, 40% of the New Zealand population lived in towns, and the remaining 60% were scattered over the countryside. In 1886, the population of Europeans in New Zealand was 578 482. 43.3% of these settlers lived in the North Island, 56.7 in the South Island. In 1906, the European population had climbed to 936304 people. The population was slowly migrating north, as 55.7% of these people now lived in the North Island, and the remaining 44.3 in the South Island. At the beginning of the 1880s, New Zealand comprised multiple colonies, which had reasonably little to do with each other. By the early twentieth century, after the abolition of the provinces, New Zealand had drawn together. People were no longer part of a 'settlement' - they were New Zealanders.

Economic Depression and Recovery in New Zealand:

Economically, New Zealand was going through hard times in the late nineteenth century. This depression was beginning to improve in the 1870/80s... but then a recession in Victorian England stopped the slowly recovering economy, and the depression continued. Various governments attempted to provide solutions to the rapidly declining conditions of the workforce, and one example was left-over by the Vogel administration - a public works scheme. Between 1896 and WWI, however, prices for agricultural and dairy products improved markedly and quickly (e.g. cheese rose by 72%). The meat trade and dairy trade were worth £1 600 000 together. Estate owners that had retained control of their lands through the tough times were rewarded with these large prices.

The Workforce:

During the economic depression, the workforce was badly effected. This, in conjunction with mechanisation of farms helping to cut back jobs, meant laborers could not find work, apart from in seasonal shifts as work gangs. In the towns, work was very difficult to find - high competition for the few jobs available meant that employers could pay extremely low wages to employees. Sweatshops of women and children appeared (working 72 hour weeks), and when an investigation was called into workplaces of New Zealand, a full-scale scandal resulted - the workplaces of NZ were like the ones back in Britain!

The Sweater:

(poem from the Lyttelton Times, 23 March 1884)

Who robs the widow of her right,
By work that takes her day and
night,
To earn her poor starvation mite?
The Sweater.

Who is it who makes girls go astray,
To earn their bread in a sinful way,
Because for work he will not pay?
The Sweater.

Who is that will cheat and lie,
And every cunning trick will try,
His greed of gain to satisfy?
The Sweater.

Who is the vilest, meanest thief,
That trades in flesh and blood
and grief,
Till from his fangs death brings
relief?
The Sweater.

He is society's disgrace,
And must be told so to his face;
So out with him, leave him no place,
The Sweater.


However, this scandal resulted in new laws being passed relating to conditions in factories (two or more people), and the obligations of the employer. Conditions could have been worse, however. In 1978, Unions were granted legal status, and the government began public works schemes, such as the building of railroads, particularly in the South Island. Because of the nature of the colony, settlers did not specialise in any particular jobs, but instead became 'Jacks-of-all-trades'. There was little or no training for jobs - if you knew a little about plumbing, for example, you could call yourself a plumber. Teachers were not trained, but simply taught (although in theory, the headmaster trained them up after school, however, this did not apply in practise). These 'training-less' jobs began to be phased out at the end of the century, e.g. in 1895, plumbers had to register as a plumber. Self-sufficiency was prized in the New Zealanders - the beginnings of 'Kiwi Ingenuity'.

Social Issues:

The churches of New Zealand and the women appeared to be the most concerned citizens about increasing social issues. Alcohol (the 'demon drink' - in 1881, there was one pub per 357 New Zealanders!), education, crime, prostitution and bad morals were of increasing concern, and groups like the Women's Christian Temperance Union began to take action. It seemed that it was the women's task to preserve civilised society and order.
Education was of high importance to the colonists, who had escaped the hard times back in England. The colonists were determined to give their children the best possible start in life, so many schools were immediately set up. The various churches, particularly the Catholic church were quick off the mark at setting up convent schools, boarding schools, Sunday schools - just education! In 1877, education was free and compulsory at primary school level. Women too, began to shine in the academic field by the end of the century - Emily Siedeberg had entered the Otago Medical School, and Ethel Benjamin completed her law degree (both firsts). Houses were set up for orphans (particularly illegitimate children) and prostitutes. Women campaigned against alcohol, from which (they believe) stemmed all of society's problems.
A Presbyterian movement (in conjunction with the Suffrage movement) began to call for equality for women, especially in matters like relationships. In 1893, women finally obtained the vote, after a campaign spearheaded by Kate Sheppard. New Zealand was proud of its role as the progressive leader of the world.
Another socialist success was the introduction of the pension in 1898, under Richard Seddon's Liberal government. New Zealand, to outsiders, appeared to be a very pious country, however only 23-28% of New Zealanders attended church on a regular basis, whereas in England, this figure was closer to 40%. Methodists were the highest attendees, followed by Catholics... Presbyterians and Anglicans were slightly less again. Low attendance did not represent a rejection of Christianity, however, as an 1881 census showed that 94.1% of New Zealanders considered themselves as affiliated to a Christian denomination.

Politics:

This period in New Zealand's history was the 'Liberal Era', the birth of New Zealand's commitment to leading the world in social reforms. Notable Prime Ministers of this period were John Ballance and Richard Seddon. Richard Seddon's term as Prime Minister was the longest in New Zealand history, and his administration brought in many reforms, such as votes for women (reluctantly) and the old-age pension. New Zealand was a socialist utopia, and socialists from around the world came to see for themselves the development of equality in our country. Even the most conservative of our members of parliament would have been accepted into the British Liberal Party, a major achievement. New Zealand set the standard for social reforms, and the rest of the world struggled to keep up.

National Pride:

As New Zealand came of age, so did the cultural, political and social aspects of the country we know today. New Zealanders were proud of the country they had nurtured from a wild frontier to a bustling, prosperous nation with a future. The Liberal government of the time was a source of pride for New Zealanders - the social reforms of the time caught the imagination of the citizens of New Zealand, who believed that if you worked hard enough, anything could be achieved.
Housing standards improved considerably with the addition of comforts like the inside flush toilet, the sewing machine, the coal range and running water, the villa became the desirable type of urban house for the middle class, and the Workers' Dwellings Act of 1905 (Seddon administration) saw the creation of state houses. Few of these were ever built, but they defined the minimum standard to which the Liberals aimed.
The arts took off, with beautiful 'Plein air' (semi-impressionist) paintings being created and the beginnings of New Zealand literature. Sports played an important role in the life of the average citizen - two examples are Timaru's blacksmith turned boxer Bob Fitzsimmons, who used his famous solarplexus punch to retain his title as middle-weight champion of the world, and the All Blacks (named so by a English journalist during a tour in the early twentieth century because of the colour of their uniform) who delighted fans worldwide with their haka and regular thrashing of the English rugby side.

The Boer War:

At the end of the nineteenth century (1899), New Zealand was proven to be a large supporter of the Empire. New Zealand offered troops to send to South Africa to help the British in the Boer War before it had even begun. 6500 men were sent to the war effort, but these men were all pakeha. Maori had indicated a willingness to fight in the Boer War, but the Empire refused their offered participation.
Although Britain paid for most of the war, the New Zealand public (both Maori and colonists) quickly and enthusiastically raised £500 000 for the war effort. New Zealanders still felt close ties to Britain:
"Our youth volunteer because they feel they are as English as if they had never lost sight of Kent hop-fields or Devon hedgerows" (New Zealand Herald, 23 Dec.1899).
The New Zealanders were very successful in South Africa, and proved to be brave and resourceful - they were often used as scouts. The New Zealand 'Rough Riders' were also, on average, larger than the British troops, and could match them in every way on the battlefield. The war both unified society and created a sense of pride and nationhood. Community fundraising efforts and tales of bravery shown by NZ troops merged New Zealand society. New Zealanders had a distinct character, and had proven themselves in battle.

Boys of the Southern Cross:

(send-off song for the NZ troops)

We've heard about your trouble, Tom,
In rousting out the Boer;
You shall not fight out there alone
Amid the canon's road,
The blood that stirred our noble sires
To build up England's Fame,
Re-kindles in Colonial sons
Their prestige to maintain. For-

We are boys of the Southern Cross,
Our stars shine on our flags-
Emblazoned with the Union Jack,
To show we're Empire lads.

With three cheers for the Empire, loud;
And for the Queen, - Hurray!
We'll stick tight in our saddles, boys,
To drive the foe away;
When once again our land shall loom
And Kruger is no more,
Welcome we our native home-
And fair New Zealand's shore.

Sense of Nationhood:

The end of the nineteenth century saw a definite sense of 'belonging' appear in New Zealand society. Previously, people spoke of belonging to one of the 'six colonies', rather than being from New Zealand. The construction of post offices, telegraphs and railways brought the settlements into better contact with one another - as a result, a feeling of nationhood began to emerge. A distinct accent was beginning to develop, and the Post Office was the centre of every town. Colonial children were different from the children back in the motherland, as they were considerably more independent, free-ranging (it was not unheard of for children living on the 'frontier' to disappear into the bush and never be found) and outspoken. The New Zealand Flag that we know (at that time it was a nautical ensign) became used more frequently used than the official flag of the time. By 1901, the Union Jack and Southern Cross design became the official New Zealand flag. The current national anthem 'God Defend New Zealand' was composed in the 1870s, but was not popularised until the beginnings of WWII. New Zealand was prosperous, the country was running smoothly, and the future was looking bright. National organisations were formed in sport, politics, unions and agriculture. Voluntary organisations, like St. John's Ambulance Association (the Order of St. John) took on a national identity. New Zealand literature and artworks began appearing, the first New Zealand textbook for New Zealand schools was published.
The children of the settlers looked to their British roots with a sense of pride and loyalty, but after the Boer War, were aware that they were not quite British - something else... The pioneer experience of the settlers (hard work and improvisation) gave New Zealanders attitudes very different to that of their European counterparts.
When the Australian colonies federated in 1899, there was talk of New Zealand joining as part of Australia, however a Royal Commission appointed to investigate New Zealanders reactions to this proposal showed that New Zealand was overwhelmingly against a union. We did not want to become Australians. A New Zealand identity was being expressed - New Zealand was no longer a true colony... we were a nation. This was proven in 1907, when New Zealand became a Dominion.

Relationship to the Empire:

In the 1880s, New Zealand maintained close ties with the Empire and motherland, but during the Liberal Era of the 1890s, and the realisation of nationhood after the Boer War, New Zealanders began to see themselves as more than a simple colony. Seddon introduced laws during the 1890s to maintain the 'purity' of New Zealand blood (only British immigrants were good enough - Chinese, Indians, Syrians, Dalmatians, French and Germans would 'taint' the British stock in New Zealand... a disgusting show of discrimination), proving how close we were to Britain... but the settlers saw themselves as the Britons of the Pacific. They also believed that they had a role as a protector, and that they must protect the Empire's Pacific interest from French and German expansion threats. Seddon visited England in 1897 for Queen Victoria's jubilee, and charmed the nation (he was offered a knighthood, but turned it down). He spoke sometimes of annexing the Cook Islands, Samoa, Tahiti and Fiji... he even mentioned an interest in Hawaii to the American President on the way back after the visit to England! New Zealanders (as shown by the quote in the section on the Boer War) felt close to Britain, and signed up to help protect the Empire before the Boer War had even begun, an incredible loyalty, considering that most of those who signed up had never seen England. New Zealand was rewarded in 1900 with being allowed to annex the Cook Islands (the House suddenly stood up and sang Rule Britannia). New Zealand was still loyal to the Empire, but also beginning to look out for our own interests - Seddon sent troops to South Africa not only to maintain the Empire, but also to get on good terms with the British for economic reasons.

Important Personalities:

Important personalities/teams of the time were:
John Ballance (1839-93): Prime Minister for only three years, beginning in 1890 (Liberal). Kindly, progressive man, his administration was responsible for some of the most advanced legislation in the world. Disapproved of early government policies pertaining to treatment of Maori. Other members of his party were Seddon, Ward, McKenzie, Reeves and Carroll.
Richard 'King Dick' Seddon (1845-1906): Longest serving Prime Minister in New Zealand History (1893-1906, Liberal). Succeeded Ballance, and headed the administration which has a reputation of being the most far-sighted a progressive of all the New Zealand governments. He reflected New Zealand's society of the time - forward and without polish. He was an imperialist (he was always indicating that annexing Pacific islands to New Zealand would be beneficial to both the Empire and New Zealand) and advocated the Boer War. He was a dominant Prime Minister (holding the portfolios of Defence, Education, Finance, Immigration and Labour). Votes for women and free secondary schooling were introduced during his term, but he became increasingly more conservative as time went on.
Kate Sheppard (1848-1934): Social reformed and first president of the National Council of Women. She emigrated from Liverpool in 1869 and joined the WCTU. Between 1888 and 1893, she organised five petitions on the issue of Women's Suffrage, and was largely responsible for the legislation passed during the Seddon administration that legalised votes for women. She had an enormous political impact.
NB: Although the Stout-Vogel and Fox-Vogel Administrations (1870s-early 1880s) do not truly fall into this topic, their legacies affected the lives of New Zealanders still at the end of the century. Vogel's public works schemes had been blamed for the depression, but in the long term, the railways created during his time as Deputy Prime Minister enhanced New Zealand society considerably.

Conclusion:

The period of 1880-1907 was an important time in New Zealand history. It held the roots of our nation - the change from a settler society to a Kiwi society. The depression, the Boer War and socialism drew New Zealand into a tight-knit society, joined by the experience of being a pioneer. Tough, outspoken, sport-loving and independent, by the twentieth century, New Zealanders had both a place and identity.

Bibliography:

The Bateman New Zealand Encyclopedia (Third Edition, 1992; publisher: David Bateman Ltd.; chief editor: Gordon Mc Lauchlan).
An Illustrated History of New Zealand (1990; publisher: Allen & Unwin New Zealand Ltd.; authors: Judith Binney, Judith Bassett and Erik Olssen).
New Zealand - The Story So Far (1997; publisher: Harper Collins; author: Edmund Bohan).
A Century of Change (Second Edition, 1997; publisher: Longman; authors: Marcia Stenson and Erik Olssen).
The Story of New Zealand (1995; publisher: Reed; authors: Judith Bassett, Keith Sinclair and Marcia Stenson).
The Oxford History of New Zealand (Second Edition, 1992; publisher: Oxford University Press; editor: Geoffery W. Rice).